Freedom is an illusion

Freedom is an illusion Brief 106213 ‘Freedom is an illusion.’ Discuss. Roger Scruton once remarked that there are ‘two sources of the metaphysical conundrum of human existence: one is consciousness, the other one is freedom.’ (Scruton: 227). Philosophers have long been perplexed by questions of freedom and necessity in human life. This essay will focus on Enlightenment philosophy which has given a formidable response to those who maintained that freedom in the social domain is a chimera. Amongst Enlightenment philosophers Immanuel Kant has probably formulated the most consistent and compelling argument for the existence of human freedom and it is his notion of the intricate connection between liberty and autonomy that will receive most attention in this essay. Philosophers have often approached the issue of human freedom from two different angles. First, they often conceptualised freedom under the rubrics of the absence or presence of constraints in the social sphere. Political philosophers have mainly engaged in this version of theorising freedom. The question they asked is most poignantly captured by Rousseau who notes that the real mystery of freedom is how we can be in chains and still regard ourselves as free (Rousseau: 181). While Thomas Hobbes considered freedom a matter of external impediments to an intended action, Rousseau extended this notion of impediment by querying whether social practices and laws should consequently be perceived as constraints and how we could possibly justify the existence of such laws and rules. Rousseau accepted that rules may facilitate the varied co-operative schemes amongst strangers. Yet, he argued any laws of society clearly required some justification, one that was rooted not in tradition but in reason. He writes: ‘the problem is to find a form of association†¦ in which each [individual], while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before.’ (Rousseau: 191) The second, and arguably more philosophical perspective which philosophers formulated however takes a more fundamental view of human life. It does not concentrate on the various external constraints which may act as obstacles in our multifarious pursuits of life, but whether we have the capacity to act freely at all. David Hume framed this viewpoint when he explored the relationship between reason, passion and action in his work A Treatise of Human Nature. In an insightful passage he notes that reason may be instrumental in identifying the connections between causes and effects, but must inevitably fail to contribute to the objects of our will. He thereby sets the tone of the argument which Immanuel Kant took up only decades later with such analytic precision. Hume notes: ‘Nothing can oppose or retard the impulse of passion, but a contrary impulse†¦We speak not strictly and philosophically when we talk of the combat of passion and of reason. Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey them.’ (Hume: 415) And in a famous sentence, Hume draws the radical conclusion: ‘Tis not contrary to reason to prefer the destruction of the whole world to the scratching of my finger.’ (Hume: 416) But if Hume’s radical scepticism as to the influence of reason on individual volition was correct, are we condemned to go wherever our passions and impulses take us? Kant was at pains to point out that human life possesses an ethical quality which cannot be grounded in the manifold desires and urges that individuals happen to find themselves in. Any viable notion of moral conduct must presuppose a capacity to reason and, critically, assumes a notion of freedom that we cannot deny anybody else. Freedom is a prerequisite of ethical behaviour. Kant thought that Hume had overlooked an essential dimension of the relationship between passions and human action. Although he granted that desires and impulses that are contingent upon circumstances may generate the goals of human conduct whether or not we pursue a once identified object of desire or a certain course of action crucially depends on its compatibility with the most fundamental moral law, the categorical imperative, which is ‘†¦ the principle to act on no other maxim than that which can also have as an object itself as a universal law.’ (Kant: 63) This leads Kant to conclude that freedom is the most fundamental category of social existence for those that are capable of rationality. As Scruton notes, for Kant ‘freedom is the presupposition for the applicability of the moral law’ (Scruton: 234). However, if this was all there is to Kant’s argument he would only have presented us with another reason why we ought to assume that individuals act freely when they behave morally. First of all, Kant reminds us that as humans we are at once part of the world of nature and of the world of reason. As to our impulses and desires that we happen to have, we are part of the animal world. We understand them in terms of necessity, generated by physical circumstances. No moral standards apply. It matters little whether we approve of being hungry or sleepy; ethical maxims cannot alter our state of affairs in any remarkable way. As such, human beings are subject to the natural laws that govern the domain of nature. We cannot suspend these laws even if we disapprove of them. On the other hand, however, man is a creature that is capable of rational thought and as such he has given himself laws to live by. These laws are often arbitrary, but Kant intends to show that there is at least one law that regulates human life which possesses universal applicability. The issue Kant has to confront is one that echoes Rousseau’s dilemma of how to reconcile laws and freedom. For Kant, his question is under which conditions individual agency can impose norms and rules onto itself while still remaining to be unfettered by extraneous circumstances. For Rousseau it was the question of identifying those laws of society that would accommodate individual (external) freedom with legal constraints. Kant challenges us first of all to consider under which conditions we can speak of a free will. He argues that human volition must be self-determined to be plausibly considered as free. If the will is subject to extraneous circumstances or influences if ceases to express itself freely in our actions. In this scheme of things, freedom can only be preserved if the moral laws that individuals endorse and accept as their guidance are such that they can accept them voluntarily (Kant: 57-58). Kant notes that man may come to approve of various rules of social co-operation for a variety of reasons, some of them ethically more obscure than others. What may appear to be actions done out of benevolence may turn out to be done with a personal benefit in mind. Kant is adamant that we cannot accept any rules for spurious or ethically nebulous reasons. Accepting a maxim out of selfishness does not produce a good, but a morally flawed norm. Equally, adopting a morally hazy rule even with best intentions cannot lay the foundations of a just society. In a brilliant analytical sequence Kant guides us to the solution of this problem: The only truly good entity, he argues, is a good will (Kant: 14-15). It is only determined by itself and so accepts no other authority than itself. In fact, it produces true authenticity of human conduct. Now, any inherently good will must recognise that there is only one maxim that reflects accurately the notion of an ethical norm; Kant writes: ‘Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’ (Kant: 38) Kant’s argument provides us with a formidable justification for assuming that freedom is the necessary and indispensable condition of human existence given that man has the capacity to act upon the commands of reason: that is the categorical imperative. He writes: ‘Now I affirm that we must attribute to every rational being which has a will that it has also the idea of freedom and acts entirely under this idea. †¦ (The individual) must regard itself as the author of its principles independent on foreign influences. Consequently, [any individual] must regard itself as free.’ (Kant: 65) For Kant, being human is tantamount to being free. Only freedom guarantees that we can plausibly speak about moral responsibility. And although Kant’s argument in favour of the categorical imperative has attracted much criticism, his idea of freedom and individual autonomy still offers us a remarkable benchmark in normative ethical theory. David Hume (1989). A Treatise of Human Nature. [1739]. Edited by L.A. Selby-Bigge. Oxford: Clarendon. Immanuel Kant (1949). Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals. [1785]. Indianapolis New York: Liberal Arts Press. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1973). The Social Contract and Discourses. [1762] Translated and introduced by G.D.H. Cole. London: Everyman. Roger Scruton (1997). Modern Philosophy. A Survey. London: Arrow.

Report on field visit to SARDI (Aquatic Sciences)

Aquatic Sciences is a research division under SARDI with a main motto of the sustainable growth of South Australian Industries. The South Australian Aquatic Sciences Centre (SAASC) is located at West Beach on the shores of Gulf St. Vincent and most of the research works in aquatic biology are conducted here. The thrust areas of research include 1. Aquaculture: Here active research is being carried out for freshwater, brackish and marine aquaculture needs. This include development of diets, species selection etc. 2. Marine Environment and Ecology: conduct research on habitat mapping, environmental impact assessment, etc. . Oceanography: Research to understand the influence of oceanographic factors on climate. 4. Wild Fisheries: They carry out stock assessment works and provide necessary information to the industries involved for the sustainable exploitation of the stocks such as abalone, rock lobster, prawns, snapper, garfish and Australian sardines. Also undertakes surveys to measure the impact of fishing effort on fish stocks. 5. Inland Waters & Catchment Ecology: Undertake research on inland water habitats. There are 87 research and technical staff, 18 support staff and 40 postgraduate positions at West Beach research centre. The facilities include a central library with the most modern and comprehensive literature of different aspects of aquatic sciences. The pool farm has facilities to carry out research in both marine and freshwater environments with tanks of different capacities. We were allowed to visit the different research infrastructure facilities such as coastal finfish hatcheries, sophisticated aquaculture laboratories, controlled environment rooms, fish aging laboratories, image analysis rooms etc. As a whole, the trip was of great use to understand the various research activities that are going on in the field of marine biology.

A History of the World in Glasses

Tom Standard, various drinks are related to different time periods. Coca-Cola, a drink mentioned in the book, was related too later time period during the sass around the time of the Call war. The Civil War was a significant event as it led to a free economy in the united States as well as the development of a single market. The establishment of a single market and furthering of a free market economy in the United States allowed for the growth and success of the Coca-Cola Company.In 1767, Joseph Priestly produced artificially carbonated drinks. About a hundred years later John Pentameter was experimenting with carbonated water adding flavor to it, thus creating what we now call Coca-Cola. This invention would not have gone much further if it were not for some significant developments in the Unites States and around the globe. In 1865, the Call War ended leading to the creation of one of the largest market economies in the world. This benefited entrepreneurs and business owners as the re was a huge market which loud help their businesses succeed.Additionally, the United States was set-up as a free-market economy which furthered innovation and the pursuit of profitability and success. The first development led to the creation of an economic system while the latter led to the expansion of the economic system. The Coca-Cola Company took full advantage of the above developments and became an iconic brand recognized around the world. Coca-Cola was aided by the rise of Industrialization In the production of its products.They also created a unique and distinctive shape for the bottle in 1916 to create a desire for the product and better marketability. The company started using Santa Claus in their advertisement for similar reasons. While the product was marketed to adults Initially, the company started selling to children In 1986. All of these activities were geared towards taking advantage of the market Coca-Cola served. The united States economic system assisted Coca- Cola in pursuing growth and profitability. Coco-cola's success did not go unnoticed.Pepsi entered the arrest during the middle of the twentieth century selling products similar to Coca- Cola, flavored carbonated drinks. In the latter part of the twentieth century, seeking more profits and growth, the Coca-Cola Company entered foreign markets like Russia, China and India. While the US and India are capitalist societies, Russia and China are socialist. This led to interaction between different economic systems and trade and commerce between very distinctive cultures. All of these resulted In the Coca-Cola Company becoming one of the most recognized brands In the world.This would not have been possible without the United States being a capitalist society which encouraged and furthered the success of companies like Coca-Cola. The creation of a single market economy and the establishment of a free-market economy in the united States led to the success of the Coca-Cola Company and its nam e becoming an iconic brand in the world. Coca-Cola was able to pursue success, growth and 1 OFF success not only in the United States but across the world. This was possible because of the success the company first had in the United States.

Discuss the Role Non Verbal Communication Plays in the...

The ability to communicate with one another is of paramount importance to the success of the human race (Hartley, 1999). Communication is a dynamic process with the interacting components of sending and receiving information. Nonverbal cues may provide clarity or contradiction for a message being sent (Dunn, 1998). This is not to say that nonverbal forms of communication merely provide a modem of clarity for verbal communication, they can, and do, stand alone (Krauss et al, 1995). Facial expressions, body movements, gaze and posture can all be used to provide further emphasis to language communication or can be employed silently and still convey important messages (Danziger, 1976). This paper will discuss the role nonverbal†¦show more content†¦Palmer and Simmons (1995) argue that to conduct successful interpersonal relationships the ability to give and interpret nonverbal cues is of paramount importance because social constraints often hinder explicit verbal messages . If this statement is taken as fact, then what happens if an individual lacks such ability? This question can be tackled by looking at studies on individuals who have adequate verbal abilities but lack the ability to communicate nonverbally as the majority of society deems normal. Hobson (1997) argued that every human is born with a biologically based capacity for the perception of, and empathic responsiveness to, the bodily expressed feelings and attitudes of others. An exception to this rule can be found when looking at mental disorders. Bormann-Kischkel et al (1995) studied autistic infants and found that they appear to lack the basic components of emotional reactivity, which appear in normally developing infants within the first few months of life. Sorce et al (1985) noted that such a lack could interfere with the childs ability to learn via observing the caregivers nonverbal cues for danger and passivity. The parents of autistic children frequently report a lack of nonverbal communication basics very early on in development. Skills such as eye contact and facial expressiveness appear to be omitted (Farran and Kasari, 1990). Dunn (1995) further described autistic individuals as lacking almost all prosocialShow MoreRelatedWorkplace Mediation36362 Words   |  146 Pagespoor management, unfair treatment, poor communication, budgets, discrimination, Unrealistic work expectations Mushroom effect – no one knows what’s happening around here, bullying and harassment , overwork, favouritism, Stress and exclusion . These issues can affect not only work life, but personal life as well. Individuals experiencing workplace conflict may feel stressed, anxious, angry, and even depression. When employees are not getting along, the consequences can be costly. 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